Language Teaching Research recent issues

Editorial

Ellis, R. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Making the instructional curriculum as an interactive, contextualized process: case studies of seven ESOL teachers

Wette, R. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

This article reports on data from interpretive case studies of seven well-qualified, experienced teachers of adult ESOL, collected through weekly interviews and analysis of documents and materials produced over the duration of a whole course for each teacher. Teachers’ knowledge and experience was apparent in their ability to conceptualize and plan globally in the pre-course phase, to establish rapport and diagnose learners’ developmental priorities as soon as teaching began, and to weave a coherent instructional curriculum¹ from a variety of components and dimensions of conceptual content according to the developmental needs, wishes and responses of learners, syllabus pre-specifications, constraints of the teaching context and their own personal theories of best practice.

The study draws attention to a number of differences between the curriculum making practices of experienced teachers and the content of language teacher education texts with regard to pre-course planning procedures and the separation of syllabus and methodology. Dissonances were also apparent between conventional descriptions of process—product orientations and strong—weak versions of communicative language teaching on the one hand, and the blended, non-standard approaches apparent in the courses in this study. The article identifies curriculum making principles and practices that were common to a number of teachers as a contribution to practice-based disciplinary knowledge and second language teacher education literature.

Does pictorial elucidation foster recollection of idioms?

Boers, F., Piquer Piriz, A. M., Stengers, H., Eyckmans, J. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Experimental evidence suggests that pictorial elucidation helps learners comprehend and remember the meaning of second language (L2) idioms. In this article we address the question whether it also helps retention of the form of idioms, i.e. their precise lexical composition. In a small-scale experiment, the meaning of English idioms was clarified to students with reference to the original, literal use of the expressions. This was done with a view to stimulating dual coding, i.e. the association of the figurative phrases with images of concrete scenes. For half of the idioms, photographs or drawings depicting those concrete scenes were added to the verbal explanations. The learners’ recollection of the content words of the expressions was subsequently gauged in a gap-fill test. Overall, the results suggest that the addition of pictorial elucidation contributes little to learners’ retention of linguistic form. Distraction by pictures may even have a detrimental effect when it comes to retaining unfamiliar and difficult words, and this seems to apply especially to learners whose learning style shows a predisposition for processing vocabulary through imagery. Insofar as our findings are transferable to vocabulary learning in general, they may call into question the rather indiscriminate and abundant use of pictorials in modern textbooks and CALL packages.

Extensive reading in a challenging environment: a comparison of extensive and intensive reading approaches in Saudi Arabia

Al-Homoud, F., Schmitt, N. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Many studies have shown that reading can have a beneficial effect on second language learning, but relatively few of these have focused on extensive reading in classroom environments over a period of time. This study compares an extensive reading class against a more traditional class involving intensive reading and vocabulary exercises. The classes were part of a Saudi college presessional course, and this classroom setting posed several problems for the extensive reading approach, including relatively weak students, an environment where pleasure reading is atypical, and the course being of short duration. The result is that the reported extensive reading class was carried out in what could be considered challenging conditions. Nevertheless, gain scores in reading comprehension ability, reading speed, and vocabulary acquisition showed that the extensive reading approach was just as effective as the intensive approach, even though some of the measurement instruments for these variables should have favored the intensive approach. Moreover, the extensive reading participants reported much more positive attitudes toward reading, their class, and their learning than the participants in the intensive reading group. Overall, these results indicate that, for the variables studied, the extensive reading approach was as good as, or better than, the more focused intensive reading approach.

The effect of keeping vocabulary notebooks on vocabulary acquisition

Walters, J., Bozkurt, N. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Vocabulary notebooks are frequently advocated as a way for students to take control of their vocabulary learning (Fowle, 2002), with the added benefit of improvements in vocabulary learning (Schmitt and Schmitt, 1995; Laufer and Nation, 1999). The study described in this article attempts to lend empirical support to these claims, by investigating the effect of vocabulary notebooks on EFL students’ vocabulary acquisition. Students in three lower intermediate EFL classes participated in the study. A vocabulary notebook program was implemented in one class over a 4-week period, with the remaining two classes acting as control groups, following the same curriculum with the same materials but without keeping vocabulary notebooks. Receptive and controlled productive vocabulary tests revealed significantly greater learning of the target words in the treatment group. In addition, students in the treatment group demonstrated a greater tendency to use the target words in free writing compositions. However, a positive impact on learner autonomy — as has been reported in previous studies (McCarthy, 1990) — was not observed. These findings lead the authors to conclude that vocabulary notebooks can be an effective learning tool in EFL classrooms, but positive impacts on learner autonomy may not be seen in the absence of appropriate motivation for language learning.

Examining the effectiveness of explicit instruction of vocabulary learning strategies with Japanese EFL university students

Mizumoto, A., Takeuchi, O. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

This study examined the effectiveness of explicit instruction of vocabulary learning strategies (VLSs) over a 10-week semester with a group of 146 female EFL learners from two Japanese universities. A vocabulary test and questionnaires on VLSs and motivation were administered at the beginning of the course. The learners were divided into two groups based on the vocabulary test results: an experimental group and a control group. Only the experimental group received explicit instruction on VLSs in combination with their regular language lessons. The same instruments were re-administered at the end of the course to examine the changes in both the questionnaire responses and test scores. Qualitative analyses were also conducted to explore the findings in detail. The results show that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the vocabulary test. It was also found that (1) strategy training was effective for both changing the repertoire of strategies used and improving their frequency of use, (2) the training increased the use of certain strategies more than it did for other strategies, and (3) different types of learners exhibited different responses to the strategy instruction. This study’s findings contribute to a better understanding of strategy instruction in general and VLSs in particular.

Regional studies

Ellis, R. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Listening to our learners' voices: what demotivates Japanese high school students?

Kikuchi, K. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Interview guides and a questionnaire were developed in order to find what f actors demotivated students in Japanese high school English classrooms. Five college students who were attending two private universities and one public university shared their views about demotivation in the interviews. Forty-two students at a public university responded to a questionnaire consisting of mainly open-ended response questions. Through qualitative analysis five factors were found: (1) individual teacher behavior in classroom; (2) the grammar—translation method used in instruction; (3) tests and university entrance examinations; (4) the memorization nature of vocabulary learning; and (5) textbook/reference book-related issues. It is hoped that these learners’ stories will help Japanese and other teachers to realize what pitfalls to avoid in their instruction.

Book review: Christiane Dalton-Puffer, 2007: Discourse in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) classrooms. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 330 pp. $54.00 (paperback). ISBN 978-9-02721-981-7

Hellermann, J. — Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Notes on contributors

Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Publications received, 2007--08

Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Publications received, 2008--09

Mon, 05 Oct 2009 07:21:44 PDT

Editorial

Ellis, R. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:14:59 PDT

Learning about and through humor in the second language classroom

Bell, N. D. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:14:59 PDT

Humorous communication is extremely complex in both its forms and functions (e.g. Norrick, 1993; 2003). Much of the previous work that has put forth suggestions for incorporating humor into the language classroom (e.g. Trachtenberg, 1979; Deneire, 1995; Schmitz, 2002) has not examined these complexities in the detail necessary for the target audience (i.e. classroom language teachers) to be able to make informed judgments concerning its possible role in their classrooms. In addition, these researchers have not made use of naturally occurring interaction in making their recommendations. This article draws on data (interviews, participant observation and discourse analysis of audiotaped or videotaped interaction) collected from three research projects involving the use and understanding of humor by second language (L2) speakers in both classroom and non-classroom situations to illuminate what has so far been a largely theoretical discussion. I critique recommendations for pedagogical applications of humor in the L2 classroom, using examples to demonstrate how these are inadequate for determining what might be taught and learned and to whom. I then present arguments as to why it is appropriate to address L2 humor in the classroom and close with suggestions for incorporating humor into the language classroom.

The evaluation of foreign-language-teacher education programmes

Peacock, M. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:14:59 PDT

This article presents a new procedure for the evaluation of EFL teacher-training programmes based on principles of programme evaluation and foreign-language-teacher (FLT) education. The procedure focuses on programme strengths and weaknesses and how far the programme meets the needs of students. I tested the procedure through an evaluation of a TEFL programme, collecting data from students, teachers, and alumni through interviews, questionnaires, essays and analysis of programme materials. The programme had many strengths, including the teaching of pedagogic skills and promoting reflection and self-evaluation, but also shortcomings. It should increase the amount of practice teaching and increase input in certain areas such as knowledge of teaching within the local sociocultural context and classroom management. I suggest that the procedure may be useful for other contexts.

Activity theory, imitation and their role in teacher development

Feryok, A. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:14:59 PDT

This article uses activity theory to consider how teacher learning and development occurs. It aims to show that imitation and orienting activity, both of which make use of the analysis of actions into means and goals, can help explain how a group of Malaysian mathematics and science teachers learned to use the language-teaching practice of tasks for English medium content teaching. It focuses on four Malaysian mathematics and science teachers who participated in a teacher-development programme by comparing their peer microteaching lessons on weeks 2/3 and 10 of the programme. The findings show that the teachers learned to use tasks by being able to successfully imitate some task criteria before others, with the crucial criterion of a `gap' being particularly difficult to imitate. This suggests they were orienting to tasks through incomplete images, possibly because of their prior experiences as content teachers. Role reversal helped clarify their images of tasks, enabling faithful transmission to occur. This study concludes by suggesting that imitation and transmission are important to teacher development, and that further research using Galperin's orienting activity is called for.

Practitioner research

Allwright, D. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:14:59 PDT

An inquiry into expressive writing: a classroom-based study

Bilton, L., Sivasubramaniam, S. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:14:59 PDT

This article makes a plea for using expressive writing in EFL/ESL writing courses. It examines the current unsatisfactory state of EFL/ESL writing and locates its causes in the pragmatic approach of textbook writers and practitioners. Next it reports a longitudinal case study of a university writing class at the upper-intermediate level of English where response writing was introduced over one semester. Results show student progress along a continuum of responsiveness with growing pleasure in the opportunity for self-expression leading to increased mastery of the language and more sophisticated thinking. Based on our findings we strongly recommend that expressive writing be factored into mainstream tertiary EFL/ESL writing courses. The problematic state of EFL/ESL writing today has prompted the present study. An examination of the current malaise will uncover educational and social concerns that are fundamental to institutional teaching and learning. Once these are addressed, a better way of teaching writing can be developed. An example of such a way is offered as a report of some action research undertaken in the English department of a Middle Eastern university.

Book review: Carmen Munoz, editor, 2006: Age and the rate of foreign language learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. 284pp. $49.29 (PB). ISBN 978-1-85359-891-3

Izumi, S. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:14:59 PDT

Book review: Elaine K. Horwitz, 2008: Becoming a language teacher: a practical guide to second language learning and teaching. Boston, MA: Pearson. 260 pp. $58.60 (PB). ISBN 978-0-20543-082-6

Vasquez, C. — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 08:14:59 PDT

Editorial

Ellis, R. — Thu, 26 Mar 2009 08:46:51 PDT

Examining the effects of metacognitive strategy instruction on ESL group discussions: A synthesis of approaches

Lam, W. Y.K. — Thu, 26 Mar 2009 08:46:51 PDT

This article presents the findings of an intervention study designed to examine the effects of metacognitive strategy instruction (MCSI) on learners' performance and on strategy use. Two classes in the secondary English oral classroom in Hong Kong participated in the study; one class received eight sessions of MCSI and the other served as a comparison group. In weeks 1, 10 and 20, data were collected from the learners' performance in group-work discussions, from the self-report questionnaires, from the observations of learners' strategy use, and from the stimulated recall interviews. The findings indicated that the treatment class generally outperformed the comparison class in the group discussion task. In addition, there was corroborating evidence from the multi-method approach to support the view that the learners tended to deploy `problem identification' as a global planning strategy to cope with an upcoming prioritization group discussion task. The findings are discussed with respect to awareness-raising value of the MCSI, the interaction effect between strategy instruction and research method, explicit and implicit learning, and a match of task type and strategy choice. Finally, the distinct advantages of using a multi-method approach to gauging the effects of MCSI are appraised.

Effects of listening strategy instruction on news videotext comprehension

Cross, J. — Thu, 26 Mar 2009 08:46:51 PDT

Developments in broadcast and multimedia technology have generated a readily available and vast supply of videotexts for use in second and foreign language learning contexts. However, without pedagogical direction learners are unlikely to be able to deal with the complexities of this authentic listening resource, and strategy instruction may be one route to augmenting comprehension. This quasi-experimental, classroom-based study investigated the impact of listening strategy instruction on advanced-level, adult, Japanese, EFL (English as a foreign language) learners' comprehension of BBC news videotexts. An experimental group received 12 hours of listening strategy instruction consisting of the presentation, practice, and review of listening strategies, while a comparison group did not receive any explicit strategy instruction. Results indicated a significant improvement for the experimental group, although a significant effect in favour of the experimental group with respect to the comparison group was not evident as the comparison group also made significant gains. Possible reasons for findings are outlined and recommendations for future research presented.

Student preferences: Goal-setting and self-assessment activities in a tertiary education environment

Kato, F. — Thu, 26 Mar 2009 08:46:51 PDT

This article reports the results of student preferences with respect to intervention studies integrated into college level Japanese language courses in two consecutive years. The initial study was entitled `Goal List Project'; the subsequent amended study was entitled `Self-Assessment Project'. The former project required the students to set individual goals and to commit to the goals in a written document. On the basis of the analysis of the students' responses, the second study excluded the written goal list requirement. Both projects contained common elements of student reflection, self-assessment, documentation of problems/comments and written instructor feedback. Questionnaires (n = 225) were used to investigate the projects from both a quantitative and qualitative perspective. More students recognized the intervention processes used in the Self-Assessment Project as being helpful compared to those used in the Goal List Project. This is indicative of a learner preference for intervention activity dealing with performance self-assessment as opposed to activities that included goal-setting procedures.

Learner uptake and acquisition in three grammar-oriented production activities

Reinders, H. — Thu, 26 Mar 2009 08:46:51 PDT

This study investigates the effects of three types of production activities on uptake (operationalized as correct suppliance of the target structure during the treatment) and acquisition of negative adverbs in English. It also investigates the relationship between uptake and acquisition. The three production activities included a dictation, an individual reconstruction and a collaborative reconstruction activity. Each of these asked participants to produce the target structure but differed in (1) whether the activity was completed individually or collaboratively; (2) the amount of text participants had to produce; and (3) their degree of complexity and cognitive demand. It was found that all three activities resulted in uptake with the collaborative reconstruction, the dictation activities resulting in greater uptake than the individual reconstruction activity. There was also an effect for the activities on acquisition (of grammatical items only), but no differential effect for any of the three types of activities. It was concluded that a production activity can lead to increased uptake, but not to increased acquisition, and vice versa. The results may help language teachers look beyond immediate performance on an activity as a measure of success, and make better-informed decisions about when to use what type of activities.

Book review: Hedy M. McGarrell (Ed.) (2007). Language teacher research in the Americas. Alexandria, VA: TESOL. 203 pp. $29.95 (TESOL non-member), $22.95 (TESOL member) (paperback). ISBN 978-1931185424

Lee, J. J. — Thu, 26 Mar 2009 08:46:51 PDT

Book review: Adrian Palmer and Mary Ann Christison (2007). Seeking the heart of teaching. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. 224 pp. $27.50 (paperback). ISBN 978-0472032266

Konoeda, K. — Thu, 26 Mar 2009 08:46:51 PDT

Erratum

Thu, 26 Mar 2009 08:46:51 PDT

Understanding and improving language education through program evaluation: Introduction to the special issue

Norris, J. M. — Thu, 08 Jan 2009 07:16:55 PST

Reconciling accountability and development needs in heritage language education: A communication challenge for the evaluation consultant

Elder, C. — Thu, 08 Jan 2009 07:16:55 PST

The paper offers a retrospective evaluation of recent evaluative studies of bilingual programs in the Australian state of Victoria, in an attempt to determine how successfully the evaluation process met the dual criteria of external accountability and development. The programs in question were located in primary or secondary government schools and involved partial immersion in a heritage language. Data for the paper are drawn from the following: (a) the consultant's recollections of the evaluation context and process, and (b) the evaluative reports relating to three different programs (Vietnamese—English, Chinese—English and Arabic—English respectively). In hindsight it appears that the effectiveness of each evaluation may have depended in part on the degree of fit between the school and the consultant's views about the function of the evaluation initiative, as well as on her ability to communicate findings in terms which were both academically defensible and meaningful for teachers and program administrators. While the task of bridging the gap between the accountability and ameliorative functions of each evaluation was challenging for all parties (and possibly exacerbated by linguistic and cultural divides), it is argued that the former is not necessarily at the expense of the latter. The requirement that outcomes be reported objectively to an external stakeholder can, if appropriately handled, generate insights among program participants which can be harnessed for program improvement. The paper concludes with an account of the lessons learned from the evaluations, in the hope that these help will evaluation consultants in forging more productive relationships and better communications with program participants.

Using program evaluation to inform and improve the education of young English language learners in US schools

Llosa, L., Slayton, J. — Thu, 08 Jan 2009 07:16:55 PST

The purpose of this paper is to discuss how program evaluation can be conducted and communicated in ways that meaningfully affect the education of English language learners (ELLs) in US schools. First, the paper describes the Waterford Early Reading Program Evaluation, a large-scale evaluation of a reading intervention implemented in schools with substantial populations of ELLs in a large urban school district in California. Second, using the Waterford evaluation as an example, this paper discusses the conditions necessary for conducting an evaluation that yields useful information about a program's implementation and effectiveness. The paper also highlights the importance of communicating those findings in a clear way so as to be meaningful to stakeholders and decision-makers in order to facilitate the goal of improving the education of young ELLs.

Late-stage refocusing of Irish-language programme evaluation: Maximizing the potential for productive debate and remediation

Harris, J. — Thu, 08 Jan 2009 07:16:55 PST

The teaching and learning of Irish in primary school is both an important educational issue and central to the national language revitalization effort. The findings of Irish-language programme evaluations, therefore, are invariably scrutinized very closely by different sectors. This paper examines how the later stages of a major evaluation took account of challenging initial findings and anticipated likely misinterpretations of their implications. It documents how additional analyses, interpretative work, and careful reporting were used to provide a rich contextualization of the findings. In this way, the potential of the evaluation to generate productive debate and effective remedial action was maximized. The paper concludes with recommendations for how language program evaluators can guide the evaluation process in order to maximize contributions to critical decisions on language policy and educational practice.

Evaluation of teacher induction practices in a US university English language program: Towards useful evaluation

WeiWei Yang, — Thu, 08 Jan 2009 07:16:55 PST

This article reports on a formative and internal evaluation of teacher induction practices for newly hired teachers in a US university ESL program. By adopting a utilization-focused approach, evaluators produced a design that was articulated to the information needs of the evaluation users. The ensuing findings were then used to develop and improve program practices in specific and high-priority ways. This paper calls for attention to ways of enhancing the utility of evaluations within language education programs — and thereby enhancing the value of what language educators do — and it illustrates how a utilization-focused approach can help to ensure the actual uses and the utility of evaluation practices.

Small answers to the big question: Learning from language programme evaluation

Kiely, R. — Thu, 08 Jan 2009 07:16:55 PST

This paper explores why the learning posited as an intrinsic dimension of evaluation practice and use has been difficult to achieve, and how it might be more effectively realized. In recent decades language programme evaluation has evolved from focused studies of teaching methods inspired by language learning theories to a curriculum management enterprise with a focus on quality assurance and enhancement. There has been a parallel development from evaluation as a research-type study, where the findings are disseminated through publications, to evaluation as a dialogue within programmes for ongoing improvement of learning opportunities. These changes raise issues about learning from evaluation. Who should learn from programme evaluation? What should they learn? And how? The argument in this paper is for a synthesis of these conceptions of programme evaluation, so that the research-type knowledge-building enterprise and the ongoing quality management processes are mutually informing, and programme evaluation becomes a socially-situated cycle of enquiry, dialogue, and action. To facilitate the integration of research and management perspectives, three aspects of programme development are explored: innovation, teachers at work, and the quality of the learning experience of students. These are aspects of programmes which have not always had attention in evaluation theory and practice, but are central to understanding how language programmes work and develop. The significance of these issues is explored in episodes from the evaluation of materials used in an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) programme.